How to Write a Paragraph Essay

Writing a paragraph does not simply involve throwing words into the pool, hoping that it would create something meaningful. One must first create an outline in order to organize the scattered ideas before dedicating words into the paragraph. When writing a paragraph, one must start off with a â€Å"hook† sentence which can attract readers and encourage them to read more. That would be applicable to the introductory paragraph only. The succeeding paragraphs should contain a topic sentence rather than the â€Å"hook† sentence. After every topic sentence, the writer should support it with ideas that are related to the topic sentence’s idea. This actually composes the body of the paragraph. This part of the paragraph should be clear and concise. The writer must not use wordy sentences since it takes up a lot of space. Finally, one must conclude each paragraph by summarizing the ideas into one sentence and creating a transitional sentence which can relate the paragraph to the next. For introductory paragraphs, the last sentence should be the thesis statement of the whole paper. So when writing a paragraph, the writer should always start with an outline to organize his or her scattered ideas. This is where every paragraph should begin.

Activity-based costing Essay

There are many different types of cost systems a company can choose from when calculating their costs. Two of the most frequently used cost accounting systems are a volume based cost system and an activity based cost (ABC) system. Each system has their own advantages and disadvantages and some are more common among certain industries. Wilkerson, like many other companies, used a simple/volume based cost accounting system. Under this system, Wilkerson was inappropriately allocating their costs by assigning the overhead expenses based on direct labor, thus calculating their total costs and operating income incorrectly. If Wilkerson continues to operate their company ignoring the fact that their costs are inaccurate, it is possible that they may make poor business and pricing decisions in the future. Although Wilkerson’s costs are currently being calculated incorrectly, if they decide to use an activity based costing system, they may achieve more accurate results. Using a simple cost accounting system is often easier and less time consuming than an activity based costing system, but it is also less accurate. Wilkerson’s implementation of an ABC system would most likely be very beneficial to the company in terms of both determining their costs more precisely and making overall better pricing and business decisions. An ABC system at Wilkerson would look very different than their current volume based system. Wilkerson’s ABC system would use machine-related expenses, setup labor cost, receiving and production control, engineering, and packaging and shipment as the cost pools. The revised per unit product costs under this system would be $46.17/valve, $58.20/pump, and 115.38/flow controller and the margins would be 46.3%, 33.1%, and -9.9%, respectively. The results when calculating product costs are so different depending on the cost system because we are now actually determining the costs per unit with multiple cost pools because each resource uses a different amount of the indirect resources rather than assigning the manufacturing overhead cost solely based on the direct labor costs. Based on this new accounting information I would recommend that Wilkerson try to make an improvement in their flow controller product. Since the gross margin for this line is negative, if adjustments are made but there is no improvement in its profitability, I would tell Wilkerson to consider dropping the line completely. Although Wilkerson would lose $420,000 in sales, their costs would be reduced by more than this amount, ultimately increasing overall profits for the company. Unfortunately, there are some limitations in our analysis of Wilkerson’s alternative cost systems. One limitation is that we are unable to easily assess how the market will react to a change in the flow controller line. A second limitation that we have to consider when looking at our analysis is that although our cost allocations are much more accurate than before, these costs are still the averages for each product, which could impact how accurate we are in determining the costs. However, if we are able to look past these limitations, our analysis of Wilkerson is beneficial in shaping how the company can more accurately calculate costs as well as be more profitable in general.

Effects of 2008 Beijing Olympic Tourism Assignment

Effects of 2008 Beijing Olympic Tourism - Assignment Example The methodology to be applied for the present research is mainly based on the analysis of the literary sources related to the topic; another method used in the research is the analysis of the possible effects according to the separate aspects: political, economical, social and business. A strategy of place marketing and urban image construction examined in this paper is the staging of mega events and grand urban spectacles to attract world attention to cities. In the hope of hosting world class media events, public funds are squandered to turn cities into 'stage sets', using spectacular urbanism, monumental architecture, and modern infrastructure to erect images of progress, order and prosperity. Throughout the 1990s, a series of international events and grand political spectacles were held in Beijing to improve global perception of the city. These were accompanied by international marketing campaigns to advertise the city on the world scene and by major social, cultural, and physical beautification programmes intended to reform the city's human and material resources. As the example of Beijing will show, spectacles, festivals, and rituals are not solely directed to an international audience in the hope of attracting visitors and capital, but they also act as important tools of national representation by reviving national pride and unity and convincing local citizens of the beneficence of the system. Urban spectacles are also used to aestheticize local politics. As Wahab & Cooper rightly noted, aesthetics can easily turn an unsavoury political agenda into an intoxicating spectacle (2001). Urban spectacles and mega events can therefore have an important depoliticizing effect by draining politics out of the urban arena, thereby averting political controversy and dwarfing political defiance from the local population (Sinclair & Stabler, 1997, p. 90). Much like the 'bread and circuses' of ancient Rome, the spectacular displays that accompany the staging of important world events often act as instruments of popular pacification and social control. By distracting people from their everyday struggles, the spectacle lowers their social and political awareness and weakens their sense of criticism, thereby promoting complacency and alienation. In Beijing as elsewhere, the preparation for hosting mega events also calls for social beautification programmes, which include complex tactics of social disciplining, 'civilizing' reforms and a tightening of the social control

Introduction Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 2

Introduction - Essay Example With this the signal is converted into a form which is compatible with the system. For analog form, A/D converter is used for the transmission of the signal, and for digital form, such a block is not required if data already exists in the digital form (Bagad and Dhotre, 2009, p.4-26). PCM – PCM or pulse-code modulation is a method based on digital encoding and are effectively used in optical fibre communications. The baseband video signal in the system is quantified and sampled. There is a series of bits that encodes the sample. The light is put on and off using binary signals. The bandwidth is required to be enhanced over the baseband method for its use. This is a good choice for optical communications, particularly when laser diode has to be utilized owing to presence of inherent nonlinearity in the source of the optics (Bandyopadhyay, 2014, p.314). PPM – PPM or pulse position modulation is used for optical communications where the code scheme involves a bit time divided into two slots. Data can either be 1 or 0. If it is 1, the pulse gets transmitted in the first bit time slot. If the data is 0, then the pulse gets generated in the second slot of the bit time. Expansion of PPM is also possible and proves to be efficient for optical communications (Alexander, 1997, p.228). Digital PPM – PPM can also be used digital transmission of information based on optical communications. It is also referred to as differential pulse position modulation. It is a variation of the PPM coding, which can transmit data irrespective of the presence of time. If delays occur in the transmission, they take reference from falling edge of the pulse that was earlier transmitted (Lazaridis, 2011). Multiple PPM and Dicode PPM – Dicode PPM and Multiple PPM are considered as the most efficient bandwidths for optical communications. The best forms of sensitivities are offered by these PPM without causing the large bandwidth of the system to increase.

The theories of Organizational Behavior (F. Taylor and E. Mayo) Essay

The theories of Organizational Behavior (F. Taylor and E. Mayo) - Essay Example From the research it can be comprehended that organizational behavior bears wide appliance in management by examining ways in which persons within an organization behaves. Organizational behavior is efficiently realized by use of certain conjectures developed within this field. Organizational behavior can be observed as a multidisciplinary aspect of management, given that it integrates principles, and thoughts from assorted disciplines that correlate with human actions and relations. Organizational behavior seeks to comprehend the activities of members of a selected organization in an effort to generate competencies to envisage the probable ways in which these persons can conduct themselves. The acquired competencies can afterwards be exploited in the management of the envisaged behaviors that may encumber the accomplishment of the organizational goals. The development of organization and management goes along the commencement of conventional school, which afterwards evolved, into be nevolent approaches concerned with organizational resourcefulness. This further interweaved with other approaches of the contemporary school to form a more pronounced approach than the earlier approaches. Currently, the scientific management conjecture gets used as an offshoot of administration development. The performances of the human relations functions as the organizational stimulator to offer the resourcefulness of employees in a conservative manner in order to encourage higher productivity in commerce and industry. F.W Taylor 'scientific management theory' Scientific management conjecture was prefaced in response to a scientific investigation concerning the resourcefulness of employees within a factory. Conversely, the conjecture got evaluated in a cruel way, since the researchers were required to examine the period movement on a sequence of job responsibilities restricted by the employees, which was the grounds of reimbursement (Thompson 2009, 14). The foundation organization al resourcefulness might participate alongside with the reparation and operation productivity of employees. Scientific management conjecture presents four principles, which are the science of management conjecture by substituting the rule-of-thumb occupation methods, practical mannerisms choose workers through scientific methods (Waring 1994, 5). The others are comprehensive instructional supervision on a certain undertaking via scientific edification, and development and proper relations with workers to make certain that they are willing to perform certain activities within the organization (Akrani 2011, 1). In relation to the scientific management conjecture, the initiative of the workers that are their resourcefulness, willingness and inventiveness is acquired with complete consistency. The managers to certain organizations hold the responsibility of assuming new-fangled inflictions, tasks and responsibilities that had never been anticipated in the precedent. These managers have to collect all relevant information on their areas of specialty. The information from previous workforce in the past has to be collected, classified and calculated to offer basis for the creation of rules and regulations that control a certain industry. The rules, regulations and formulae for conducting certain activities appear to be imperative in the functioning of the organization (Savior 2011, 1). According to Taylor, augmenting the efficiency of the workforce viewed in a scientific point of view, would lead to augment in the chances for more effort, and the actual prosperity of global economics (Bolman, Deal & Pfeffer 2004, 4). Consequently, contentment and other general enhancements in the lives of the workforce are realized. This

College drop-outs Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 1

College drop-outs - Essay Example It is very difficult for an average student to afford education in a good university. People start their journey of education with a hope to get higher education one day. But by the time they reach that stage, they find their pockets too empty to even think about that. This becomes the cause of drop-outs for a lot of students. This is, indeed, a very unfortunate thing that someone who is capable of studying cannot study only because they don’t have money. There are some students who take loans to afford their education, but they go through a very tough and demanding experience emotionally, psychologically, and physically. Homesickness is a common reason for the drop-out from colleges, both among the native and the international students. Most of the 21.8 million students attending colleges and universities in America would be leaving their homes to explore a new environment, develop new relationships, and do everything by themselves; â€Å"More than a few of those students wi ll suffer homesickness, which can turn into depression, low motivation, insomnia, stomach aches and loneliness -- and their dropout rates are three times higher than non-homesick students, according to one 1993 study† (Lorenz). Native students living in hostels to save the cost of having to move from home to university every day have to live away from their families. Not only do they have to cope with homesickness, but they also have to deal with a lot of other challenges like bullying. A hostel, in no way, compares to a home in terms of environment. There are a lot of distractions in hostels. Young boys and girls form groups and gangs and tend to bully a certain student. The student finds it very difficult to deal with such groups, and eventually drops-out. Things are no less tough for the international students who have come from different countries to study in a certain university. International students also have to deal with many more problems in addition to homesickness; they have to find suitable accommodation and work in order to be able to manage their expenses. They miss their families back home. Those among the international students who cannot deal with all these challenges simultaneously eventually drop-out of colleges. In order to pay the college fee, many students work. This is typically observed among the international students. They come from underdeveloped and developing countries in search of better educational and life opportunities. Their parents are not that rich to pay their fees. Knowing that they have to manage everything by themselves, most international students work along with studying. Most of the times, they find menial jobs like dishwashing and when it comes to pay, every hour counts. They feel obliged to work as many hours as they can in order to be able to earn more. They face a lot of problems trying to manage work with education. Gradually, they realize that even if they drop-out but continue with their work, it would n ot only make their life easier, but would also lend them an opportunity to settle down in the foreign country. They also realize that they are earning more than they possibly can in their native countries. Hence, many international students drop-out of the colleges. Concluding, drop-outs are commonly observed among students of all ages in general and the ones in higher education in particular. While there are many causes of drop-outs, some of the prominent causes include

Wa#2 Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Wa#2 - Assignment Example An example is an employee who gets access to several reports on salaries and decides to compute the individual salaries of some employees. She is allowed to access each report individually, but she does not have permission to know individual salaries. In other words, not properly understanding the implications of access to several data all at once can lead to semantic security breaches. 2. Reporting systems increase the risks of semantic security breaches because they give access to several reports simultaneously for reporting needs. Reporting systems do not realize that giving a bulk of information to one employee can result to the latter using them to deduce certain information that they are not allowed to know or access. These systems are important to getting work done, but they can offer access to too much information that can result to semantic security breaches. These systems unintentionally offer information that one person should not have, provided that the person does some deduction that can result to logical assumptions. 3. An organization can protect itself from accidental losses due to semantic security problems by ensuring that no one person can get access to several data systems or data that can result to semantic security breaches. At the same time, it can hire one people to do one part of the job and not all of the activities of the job, so each person can have limited permissions to access data. Furthermore, it can create clear policies about permissions and data restrictions and penalties for transgressions. These transgressions can prevent employees from conducting data triangulation. Moreover, it can also ensure that the organization has records of the data access it gives to different employees, so that if semantic security breaches happen, they can determine who accessed what. At the same time, the organization can purchase insurance on its semantic security, so that it can have access to

Operations Management - Cruise Inc Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 1

Operations Management - Cruise Inc - Case Study Example Every section of the cruise is productive for the firm either through the direct or indirect way of generating revenue. This productivity of the firm can be measured from the earning from each activity carried out on the cruise by analyzing the travel partner performances, analyzing the cost of sale for the firm and also analyzing the trend of the ticket booking. Analyzing these sections of the firm gives a better understanding of the financial condition of the company. The EBITDA of NCL improved a lot from $6.6 million to $37.4 million in the fourth quarter and a huge increment of over the year from $228.1 million to $324.1 million in the year 2009 (NCL, 2011). Since EBITDA don’t include interest expenses, income taxes and amortization it can also be a good addition if the additional elements are calculated for more accurate productivity measurement. Describe the service package offered by NCL to its customers. Visit the â€Å"Life Onboard† section of several cruise line websites and the insight provided by the film, â€Å"Cruise Inc† to gain a better understanding of service packages offered by cruise lines. The service packages offered by Norwegian Cruise Line ranges from high premium class to the economic class to attract all types of customer, especially who have not experienced their journey on a cruise in their life. The ‘Free Style’ introduced in the year 2000 from the company attracts each and every people of the society to avail the service with a huge collection of services and entertainment for the customers on the cruise. The resort vacation experience of the customer on the cruise is the major attraction for the customers. The cabin rates of NCL Pearl ranges from $35 to $2000 per day for each person on the cruise depicts the strategy from the company how they implemented the competitive advantage to grab the market from the low to the high market segment. The seven speciality restaurants provide foods for every need of the customers with a variety of food habits and taste.  

Puzzle of High Saving Rate in China - Myth and Reality Research Paper

Puzzle of High Saving Rate in China - Myth and Reality - Research Paper Example Other economists believe that these high rates of saving are a part of financial behavior or financial attitude development that resulted in the tremendous growth of Chinese economy. Among many cynical reasons, one reason was that the increase in the number of male children born in China has resulted in this trend. The ratio of male to female children in China is around 122 men for every 100 girls. This means that one in every five man cannot find a girl in the marriage market. Hence, in order to give them competitive edge in the marriage market, these people try to save more and build up more wealth so that they can find a wife in the future. This is one f most widely accepted reason of increase in saving rates in China (Wei, 2010). Other reason for growth of saving in China is declining dependency ratio. This means that more people nowadays are working in China and hence since income of people is high they can afford to save more since they do not have to bear the expense of their dependents or people who rely on them. Another reason for this growth in saving rate is the growth of national income and GDP per capital in China. This means that people are earning more than they were earning before and hence this gives them more chances to save their money for future and precautionary motives. Table 1: Comparisons of Saving Rates as percentage of GDP Source: Yi and Ma If we compare China with other countries with other countries we can say that over time it has become far superior to other countries in terms of saving. China’s propensity to save from year 1998 to 2008 has increased from 39% of its GDP to 54.3% of its GDP. This shows a growth of around 15% over this period time. Similarly, Singapore also has a large propensity to save but over a... Hence, in order to give them a competitive edge in the marriage market, these people try to save more and build up more wealth so that they can find a wife in the future. This is one f most widely accepted the reason for an increase in saving rates in China (Wei, 2010). Another reason for the growth of saving in China is declining dependency ratio. This means that more people nowadays are working in China and hence since the income of people is high they can afford to save more since they do not have to bear the expense of their dependents or people who rely on them. Another reason for this growth in saving rate is the growth of national income and GDP per capita in China. This means that people are earning more than they were earning before and hence this gives them more chances to save their money for future and precautionary motives. If we compare China with other countries with other countries we can say that over time it has become far superior to other countries in terms of saving. China’s propensity to save from the year 1998 to 2008 has increased from 39% of its GDP to 54.3% of its GDP. This shows a growth of around 15% over this period time. Similarly, Singapore also has a large propensity to save but over a decade its growth in saving has been nothing as compared to China. Singapore’s propensity to save has risen only by 5%. Hence, we can also conclude that it is a common practice in this region to save more and hence these countries have a high propensity to save as compared to Western nations.

Week 3 Chapter 7 QM Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Week 3 Chapter 7 QM - Assignment Example These are people with whom company interacts before processes take place are called suppliers. On the other hand, people who come in contact with the company after the process of manufacturing or rendering services are called customers. Whereas, according to the contemporary viewpoint both customers and suppliers are existed inside and outside the company. In the total quality setting, customers play a pivotal and central role as they define quality. In the total quality setting customers are given top priority as they are success determinant for company. Reliable customer (one who makes repeated purchases) ensures the long term success of the company; therefore, its satisfaction is important. Reliable customer is the one who is satisfied with the company’s offerings and keep on making repeated purchases. Reliable customer can only be achieved by the company when he/she is highly satisfied. Customer satisfaction plays a key role in transforming a customer into a reliable customer. This is because once the customer is highly satisfied with what it is getting out of the product or product is exceeding his expectation only then he/she will make repetitive purchase. Otherwise, customer will simply switch to another product. Customer satisfaction can be ensured by bringing company’s employees in close contact with customers in order to find out their problems and complains related to products. Simultaneously, company should bestow powers in employees so that they could take actions to eradicate customer’s problems and make them satisfied in the end. The organization should identify needs of its internal and external customers thoroughly. It should communication with them on the regular basis. Organization should also look into customer’s feedback in order to establish a customer focus structure. Organizations should communicate with their customers on continual basis in order to know about the changes

Social and political doctrine Essay Example for Free

Social and political doctrine Essay Fascist theorists, repeating one of Mussolinis convictions, maintained that every social and political doctrine revolved around a specific conception of man and society. If this is true, Fascisms doctrine gravitated around a normic conception of man and society which Fascist theoreticians themselves variously charecterized as organic, solidaristic, or communalistic in order to distinguish it from the liberal coception to which Fascism was intransigently opposed. Before the advent of Fascism, both syndicalists and nationalists referred to their general conception of man and society as organic ;that is to say, society was understood to constitute a system, an integrated network of recurrent norm- governed interpersonal behavior patterns, coprehensive and differentiated enough to be self- sufficient with respect to the functional equirements of its members, and capable of long- term persistence. The individual was understoo to be a functioning component of a self-regulating social system. He was conceived as a determinate person only insofar as he assumed functions within the structure of relations which preceded his role occupancy and which would persist beyond it. For Fascists to speak of a social system, of integration, of norm governance, and of pattern persistence implied the existence of a central and sovereign agency of control and regulation: the state. Thus, in one of the early systematizations of Fascist doctrine, Giovanni Corso could maintain that society, law, and state are inseparable notions. The one is intrinsic to the other:. In 1935, Stefano Raguso insisted that even  the simplest community of men is inconceivable unless sustained by an active principle of organization [and] this principle of organization consists in the subordination to a sovreign, political power. This relationship had already been systematized in 1927 by Corrado Gini, who was a member of the commission studying constitutional reform after Fascisms accession to power. He describes society as a system normally found in evolutionary or devolutionary equilibrium possessed of the capacity of self- conservation and re- equilibrization which finds its highest expressioo in the modern state. Fascist doctrine inherited many conceptions from the sociological traditions of prewar Italy, but it was the conception of the state, which became central to Fascist thought only in 1921, which gave Fascism a specific and determinate character of its own. Thus, Fascists indicated that while the people, sustained by the group building sentiments to which we have alluded, constitute the content of the state, the state is formally defined by its political and juridical functions. Fascists held that, technically speaking, any form of ordered, autonomous associated life was animated by a state. The state is any society or community of men held together by a political nexus. The formal element in the state is its sovereign political and juridical power. The state is the creator of an order, through the medium of law, or norms, that reduces all the component entities to unity and coordinates all activities to a common end. The state is the ultimate repository of force to which all other must, in the final analysis, appeal for regulative sanction. Fascist theorists like Panunzio recognized that organized associations within the state had the capacity to issue rules and regulations governing their collective membership, but they held that such rules and regulations were effective only if they were directly or indirectly sanctioned by the state. That is, it was recognized that association would follow interests, real or fancied, that provided the grounds of identification among men. The imposing rise of economic organizations, specifically the syndicates, was ample evidence of that historic reality. Sects, clubs, cooperatives, cultural association- all constituted interest-fostered, rule-governed association within the state. All were autonomousinsofar as they were capable of governing their  own internal organization by the promulgstion of procedural and substantive rules. The state might not, for whatever reasons, exercise its sovereign right over them. Organizations might continue to function on the strenght of their own capacity to sanction their members. Nonetheless, Fascists insisted, the state is the sole and ultimate source of imperative sanction since the stae has the exclusive right to the regulation of the use of force. In effct, Fascism rejected the thesis that there was any limit, in principle, to the states political and juridical sovereignity. The state was integral, totalitarian. Fascism conceived no interest-economic, educational, religious or cultural- as falling outside its purview. Tere was, consequently, no private as distinct from public interest. This idea found doctrinal expression in Mussolinis aphorism: Everything within the state, nothing outside the state, and nothing against the state. If the term community has as its reference a number of individuals whose behaviour is governed by a normative order, and if the state provides the ultimate sanction that sustains theorder, the state is then understood to constitute  an underlying and essential social reality that is coextensive and coterminous with, and logically prior to, the community. If that community is a nation- a community having a common history and culture, that manifests itself in shared, stable, and habitual preferences and pririties that permit members to share more intimately with each other a wider range of communication than with outsiders- then the nation and the state are, in some critical sense, conflated. In speaking of the state per se one refers to the normative order, and in speaking of the nation one speaks of the collection of living individuals whose behaviour exemplifies that order. The political formula, Costamagna maintained, was a stenographic and sometimes elliptical formula which exressed the ultimate moral basis upon which the legitimation of power of a political class rests. Recognition, on the part of the political mass, of the legitimacy of rule entitles the moral obligation of obedience to rule. Moreover, the political formula provides the hierarchy of values which order the moral universe of the individual. The politica formula provides the content of imperatives and their normative force as well. In terms of the doctrinal language of Fascism, the nation was construed to be the real and the ultimate source of all that was valuable and valued in the individual. The nation was understood to be essentially a norm-governed community. The state was the ultimate source of sanction which, in making the norms operative, made the nation a realiy. In this fashion the state and the nation are identified with the expression stato-nazion. Since the normative system is the constitutive moral substance of the people that constitute the content of the nation-state, the state and the people are identified with the expression stato-  popolo. Since the prevailing normative system is the product of a series of creative acts on the part of historic political elites, and the contemporary political elite is charged with the responsability of sustaining and perpetuating that system and educating the masses to its responsabilities, that elitr organized in a unitary party and that system can be identified with the expression stato-partito. What results is a convenient set of substitutions that permits the nation to be identified with the state, the people and the party. This, in essence, is what Fascism mean by an integral  political system, or totalitarianism. In effect, what was implied was an identification of the ultimate real interests of the nation, the state, the party, and the individual, however divergent their apparent interests. Since the state and the party were effectively identified with the wilol of the man, Mussolini, was via the substitutions above indicated, identified with the nation. It was this identification which charecterized Mussolinis leadership as charismatic; the Duce was conceived as the living and active incarnation of the nation. This conception of charisma entered  official Fascism doctrine, for Michels identified the Regime as charismatuc government, and the official Party manual of 1936 maintained that the charismatic theory of the national society has found, in reality its first full realization in Fascism. The Fascist Synthesis Fascist doctrine was largely Mussolinis own product. Some os its elements were vital constituents of Mussolinis social and political thought as early as 1904. As he gimself indicated, however, these elements had themselves been constituents of other political or intellectual traditions. The three princical doctrinal sources of the Fascist synthesis are the antiparliamentarian sociological tradition of Gumplowicz, Mosca, Pareto, the radical syndicalist tradition of Sorel, and the nationalist tradition of Corradini. A common provenience and a constellation of historic circumstances bruoght these traditions together in Fascism. What was lacking was a principle of unity, a concept which would articulate these elements into a defensible rationale. That unifying concept was the Gentilean notion of the state; and with its adoption Fascism became the first frank totalitarian movement on the twentieth century. The doctrine of Fascism rests upon the moral priority of the nation and the state as its moral substance against which all other values are relative. Since this is th case, we have notdealt with the varying and various institutions thruogh which the integration of economy was affected. The institutional structure of the Corporative State is far less significant than the hierarchy of values which provided its rationale. Fascists early made it plain that they would use whatever methods proved effective in their effort to integrate the economic, intellectual and political life on the nation into one infrangible unity.

Strategic decisions of human resource management

Strategic decisions of human resource management Introduction The intention of this report is to analyse and evaluate communication systems which impact upon strategic decisions with reference to modern-day views of human resource management within a medium sized contracting firm. Taking a look at relevant theorists views and whether they would fit in to the medium sized contracting firm model The following areas are to be analysed and considered Types of communication systems: How these impact on strategic decisions Strategic resource management overview Theorists relevant to Human resource management (HRM) How these impact on a medium contracting firm Reference is to be made specifically to theorists models (e.g., Guests 1997 model and Legge 1995) how they compare and weather they fit into the modern HR model Communication methods See Appendix 1. Within the modern working environment the problem for management and employees alike is how to select the most effective method of communicating with other individuals and groups many factors can help to determine this selection: Formal or informal content of message; Speed and delivery and response; Individual or small group or large group as receiver; Cost of communications; Availability of information and communication technology Communication systems There are many communication systems which are relied on within the modern working environment but are we sure that we mean the telephone, meetings, computer or even written these themselves have become mobile with the introduction of the mobile phone and lap top linked to a wifi network constantly giving access to internet and emails. These are the tools for communication. Communication can be broadly classified as verbal communication and non-verbal communication. Verbal communication includes written and oral communication Non-verbal communication includes body language, facial expressions and visuals diagrams Verbal Communication Verbal communication can be further divided into written and oral communication. The oral communication refers to the spoken words. Oral communication can either be face-to-face communication or a conversation over the phone. The other type of verbal communication is written communication. Written communication can be by email or written. The effectiveness of written communication depends on the style of writing, vocabulary used, grammar, clarity and precision of language Nonverbal Communication Non-verbal communication includes overall body language of the person who is speaking, which includes body posture, hand gestures, and overall body movements. The facial expressions also play a major part since facial expressions say a lot. Non verbal communication can also be in the form of pictorial representations, signboards, or even photographs, sketches and paintings Communication is a process that involves exchange of information, thoughts, ideas and emotions. Its important that the delivery of communication is received and under stood by all subordinates; this will then allow communications to play an active role within strategic decisions. Would this be relevant within a medium sized contracting firm? Most would find it difficult to operate without effective communication. Communication can take various forms as described above but all forms involve the transfer of information from one party to the other. In order for the transfer of information to qualify as communication, the recipient must understand the information conveyed to them. If the recipient does not understand the meaning of the information conveyed to them, communication has not taken place. Communication is the life source of all organisations because organisations involve people. People cannot interact with each other without communication. Internal/Organisational Communication Communication that takes place within an organisation, in addition to the usual face to face, telephone, fax or mail; modern organisations will more often than not use technology to communicate internally. Technology may be used for e-mails or a linked internal communication system such as the intranet which is an internet system designed solely for use by those working within the organisation. External communications conversely external communication is communication between the organisation and those outside the organisation. Modern organisations may design technological systems so that they can communicate with customers and undertake e-Commerce. Alternatively they communicate with other businesses through the internet or similar systems and undertake e-Business. Upward and Downward communication Downward communication is communication created by directors and managers and passed down the hierarchy of workers in the organisation. In traditional organisations this is the preferred method of communication i.e. Managers decide what the systems, rules and procedures will be and then they pass these down to employees they manage and supervise. Downward Communication can increase efficiency by synchronising organisational procedures and can ensure that everybody is working towards the same overall aims and objectives. Types of downward communication include job descriptions, appraisals/evaluations, organisational policy, and organisational systems Effective communication is the foundation for effectiveness (McNamara) experts on organisations; management and leadership avow there cant be too much communication. Leaders and managers have realised that there is a need to effectively convey and receive information, To reiterate (McNamara Carter) subordinates need to be given proper communication from managers, as this is believed to lead to an increase in absenteeism amongst workers thus effecting productivity, there should be two-way communication in an organisation. Its enviable that the Manager should have personal contact with his subordinates. He should clearly communicate goals and policies of the organization to his subordinates and should get feedback on these goals and policies. Feedback plays a very important role in the communication process. It enables us to evaluate the effectiveness of our message. Giving the subordinates chance to provide feedback is important for maintaining an open communication within the organisation. The manager must create an environment that encourages feedback Performance appraisal Performance appraisals the process of obtaining, analysing and recording information about the relative worth of an employee. The focus of the performance appraisal is measuring and improvingthe actual performance of the employee and also the future potential of the employee. Its aim is to measure what an employee does andencourage employee communications about job-related and professional matters. (Harris, F 2006)Forms of communication include coaching, counselling, training and feedback on job performance. Strategic Human resource management What is strategic human resource management? Strategic human resource management (SHRM) could be defined as a process which is constantly evolving within many organisations, and should be constantly reviewed to suite employees and employers needs. Its definition and relationships with other aspects of business planning and strategy is not conclusive and opinion varies between many different theorists Theorists views Strategic HRM is the key to improved business performance within which there is comprehensive coverage of the various definitions and approaches to HRM, strategy and strategic HRM Armstrong, M and Baron, A. (2002) Is this statement a true reflection on what is believed to be the contemporary views of human resource management? Strategic HRM is regarded as a general approach to the strategic management of human resources in harmony with the intentions of the organisation on the future direction it wants to take. Strategic HRM is concerned with longer-term people issues and macro-concerns about structure, quality, culture, values, commitment and matching resources to future need. Boxall and Purcell argue that strategic HRM is concerned with explaining how HRM influences organisational performance. They also point out that strategy is not the same as strategic plans. Strategic planning is the formal process that takes place, usually in larger organisations, defining how things will be done, Purcell, J. (2003) To simplify these statements Strategic HRM is based on HRM principles incorporating the concept of strategy. So if HRM is a rational approach to the management of people, strategic HRM now implies that that is done in a planned way. Individuals, who are highly skilled, highly motivated and have the opportunity to participate within the organization by being given tasks to undertake. However, this will only feed through into higher levels of organisational performance if these individuals have positive management relationships with their superiors in a supportive environment with strong values. All these factors will support the willingness of individuals to perform above the minimum. It also could be said that the case is made for building the worker into the analysis of HRM, on the one hand, by incorporating worker attitudes and behaviour in the study of the HRM-performance relationship, and on the other, by paying serious attention to the association between HRM and worker-related outcomes. Evidence is presented to suggest that worker attitudes and behaviour mediate the HRM-performance relationship and that certain HR practices are associated with higher work and life satisfaction. (Guest, D 1997) Models on Strategic human resource management Human resource policies and practices have been linked with strategic objectives of many organisations. A number of British academics have made major contributions to the concept of HRM and their work is summarized below. Guest, D (1991) has taken the Harvard model and developed it further by defining four policy goals which he believes can be used as testable propositions: 1. Strategic integration: the ability of the organisation to integrate HRM issues into its strategic plans, ensure that the various aspects of HRM cohere and provide for line managers to incorporate an HRM perspective into their decision-making. 2. High commitment: A behavioural commitment to pursue agreed goals and attitudinal commitment reflected in a strong identification with the enterprise. Guest (1989) believes that the driving force behind HRM is the pursuit of competitive advantage in the market-place through provision of high-quality goods and services, through competitive pricing linked to high productivity and through the capacity swiftly to innovate and manage change in response to changes in the market-place or to breakthroughs in research and development. Legge, K (1989) considers that the common themes of typical definitions of HRM are that: Human resource policies should be integrated with strategic business planning and used to reinforce an appropriate (or change an inappropriate) organizational culture, that human resources are valuable and a source of competitive advantage, that they may be tapped most effectively by mutually consistent policies that promote commitment and which, as a consequence, foster a willingness in employees to act flexibly in the interests of the ‘adaptive organisations pursuit of excellence Summary Overall a medium sized contracting firm needs strategic systems in place especially taking into account the current economic climate, situations may arise where downsizing of the company and redundancies that may be prevalent due to the expected down turn in work load. At times of high unemployment, workers are thought to be concerned about losing their jobs and hence more conscientious and tolerant of strict management they become, its important to maintain communication in this situation. As states its important in difficult times for employees to become more flexible and foster willingness (Legge, K 1995) Other areas where lack of communication creates animosity between clients and contracting firm its proven that advising client of their needs and subsequently bring the projects successfully to implementation will help secure a good working relationship. Added values such as back up service of experienced staff and well qualified staff in all the requested areas of the construction programme this fits in with Guests model of giving high-quality goods and services, through competitive pricing linked to high productivity. (Guest, D 1997) If a business has highly motivated team then success will follow, this has to be lead from the top down and strategic integration from HR is paramount in the delivery of success as described in guests theory K, Legge at first contradicts Guests theory with whats known as a hard model theory by stating that employees are a resource just as any other business resource. Thus, human resource should match business needs and help achieve objectives. Management may monitor their performances for recognition and rewards. Furthermore, organizations will always try to acquire them as cheaply as possible, and exploit them to maximise profits. This model may sound less humanistic but the objective of achieving humanism should not compromise the objectives of organisations (Legge 1995). Theorists then began to look at other types of models and agreed that a softer approach was more fitting in certain current climates Harvard Business School developed soft or developmental humanism model, also tak es into consideration integration critical for the development of business strategies. At the same time, it also emphasises on treating people as valued assets. They should be treated as human capital, which is fundamentally different from other business resources. The soft model encourages developing employees so that they become proactive in organizational development and progress (Legge 1995). Many authors question the underlying practical applications of HRM models. Similar concerns are raised about SHRM. Its managerial focus, strategic perspectives and ‘realities‘ of HR practice have been questioned by several writers (Legge 1995; Guest 1997). SHRM is certainly concerned primarily with contributing to the ‘bottom line success of an organisation, which may sometimes involve a unitarist approach to the management of employees. SHRM may also infer a ‘hard HRM focus, which does not sit comfortably with some authors. However, as Legge (1995) points out, †˜If HRM, in either its ‘hard or ‘soft guises, involves the reassertion of managerial prerogative over the labour process, the strategies of flexibility reflect and constitute a path to this, employees as both resourceful humans and human resources Conclusion The above essay has analysed and evaluated various literature of human resource management, strategy and the links between these elements. While there is considerable discussion in relation to organisations using HRM strategically with a view to enhancing their organisation performance the actual implementation seems variable. The review of the literature also suggests there is a multi layer framework in which human resource management is located. (Guest, D. 2002) The relationship between organisations and workers is increasingly secured through different forms of involvement, ranging from an alienative to a moral involvement and from compliance to commitment as the basis for the ongoing attachment. Relationship and the interaction between the worker and employer have focused attention on outcomes. These outcomes can be perceived in terms of whether they are processes, procedures or practices, but at another they can be seen to be a mechanism for securing the objectives (Manning K 2005) Bibliography Books Bratton, J Gold, J (2003), Human resource management theory Practice 3rd edition, New York. Chaffee, E (1985) ‘Three models of strategy Academy of Management Review, London. Foot, M Hook, C. (2005), Introducing Human resource management 4th edition, London Harris, F McCaffer. (2006), Modern Construction Management sixth Edition, Blackwell Publishing, Oxford Price, A (2003), Human resource management in a business context 3rd edition, London Purcell, J. (2003), Strategy and human resource management, London. Mintzberg, H. (1994), The Rise and Fall of Strategic Planning, Prentice-Hall. Mintzberg, H., Ahlstrand, B. and Lampel, J. (1998), Strategy Safari: A guided tour through the wilds of strategic management, The Free Press. Whittington, R. (2000), What is Strategy And Does It Matter? 2nd edition Thomson Learning. Manning, Dr. K (2005), Strategic Human Resource Management and Performance. Internet McNamara, C 1997 (http://managementmrktng/org) accessed 10th Dec 09 http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=347150 accessed 5th Jan 10 http://www.business.vu.edu.au/Mgt/working_papers/2005/wp6_2005_worland_manning. Accessed 5th Jan 2010 Journal articles Guest, D. E. 1997, ‘Human Resource Management and Performance: A Review and Research Agenda, International Journal of Human Resource Management, vol. 8, no. 3, pp. 263-276. Guest, D. 2002, ‘Human Resource Management, Corporate Performance and Employee-Well-Being: Building the Worker into HRM, the Journal of Industrial Relations, vol. 44, no. 3. pp. 335-358. Guest, D. E., Conway, N. Dewe, P. 2004, ‘Using Sequential Tree Analysis to Search for ‘Bundles of HR Practices, Human Resource Management Journal, vol. 14, no. 1, pp. 79-96. Guest, D. E. Michie, J. Conway, N. Sheehan, M. 2003, ‘Human Resource Management and Corporate Performance in the UK, British Journal of Industrial Relations, vol.41, no. 2, pp. 291-314. Reilly, P. (2008) Strategic HR? Ask yourself the questions.HR Director. No 44, February. Richards, J. (2007) Aligning HR with the business: two steps forward, one step back. IRS Employment Review. No 866 March.

Deregulation Of Downstream Oil And Gas

Deregulation Of Downstream Oil And Gas It is largely assumed by Nigerians that the government involvement in the management and ownership structure of the refineries and logistics infrastructures is the cause of the numerous problems associated with the downstream oil and gas industry. Thus, the government economic reforms by way of deregulation policy was established in 2003 to revive the ailing industry. This dissertation seeks to examine the deregulation of the downstream oil and gas industry in Nigeria, a strategic management perspective of the effects, challenges and prospects. The objective of this study is to have both theoretical and practical knowledge contribution on deregulation. This study theoretical framework is embedded in three literatures: deregulation, strategic management and competitive forces. These three perspective are used in order to assess the emerging effects, challenges and prospects that the industry has on the changing strategic landscape of the deregulation exercise. The literature for this perspective, competitive forces and innovation management were reviewed: The reason for this perspective is that the competitive forces provides the understanding of the industry structure and the interactions between competitors, while innovative management is to understand the industry processes and capabilities. By summarizing and integrating these viewpoints formed a hypothesized understanding that reflected the effects, challenges and prospects of deregulation. In order to obtain an empirical analysis of the study a social constructed research methodology that is based on quantitative and qualitative method were argued for. A non-probability sample approach with a dichotomous questionnaire of (YES/NO) was self-administered in three states Abuja, Lagos and Port Harcourt to represent the three geographical areas in Nigeria, the target population of fifty persons from each state was chosen using purposive sampling method. Furthermore, an open-ended questionnaire were self-administered on two managers from Forth Oil, One Manager from Oando Plc and One Manger from Total Plc. The managers views were sort in order have industry professionals opinion on the deregulation of the downstream oil and gas industry. The data collected were analysed with the use of SPSS to determine the effects, challenges and prospects of the deregulation of the downstream industry. A Porters five model was also utilised to analyse the competitiveness in the industry. The result of the analysis shows how firms within the downstream oil and gas industry have changed and responded towards deregulation. It further shows how the previous regulated regime of the downstream oil and gas industry has been transformed to become more competitive and market driven. The analysed result shows a slim margin between the (yes/no) responses on the effects and challenges of deregulation, while there was a significant margin on the response in favour of the prospects and opportunities of downstream oil and gas deregulation. Overall, the result shows that many Nigerians are in support that deregulation will deliver positive effects, reduce the challenges in in the industry and also create better prospects and opportunities. The study findings indicates that the downstream oil and gas industry is not fully deregulated to enable market forces of demand and supply to determine product price, rather government have been fixing petroleum product prices. Most of the industry challenges are still persistent, like fuel scarcity, corruption, smuggling, and ineffective refinery. Thus, the expected benefit as promised by the government is yet to be achieved. However, based on the overall response of the respondent, this study can infer that many Nigerians support the government deregulation of the downstream oil and gas industry. CHAPTER ONE 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 BACKGROUND The advent of deregulation reform dates back to 1973 after the first oil shock experience, which led to a decline in the economic growth of most developed economies Nordhaus, Houthakker and Sachs (1980); Sachs (1982) and labour productivity growth Baily, Gordon, Solow (1981). Further to the mid-1970s productivity decline, a wide range of policy responses, including economic deregulation were introduced. The inception of deregulation reform was initiated in the US Winston (1998); Morgan (2004), while the UK and other developed economies followed in the early 1980s Pera, (1988); Healey (1990); Matthews, Minford, Nickell and Helpman (1987). The reform was also copied by the new democracies and many developing countries in the 1990s leading to wide range of labour, capital and product market reforms. This was the scenario that prevailed throughout the early 21st century Wolfl, Wanner, Kozluk and Nicoletti (2009) until the global economic and financial crisis determined the credibility o f relaxing economic growth. Like many other developing countries that copied the market reform, Nigeria being a growing economy with an increase in demand for commodities such as petroleum products Nwokeji (2007) meeting the supply needs remains a big challenge due to frequent breakdown of the refineries and over-reliance on importation. Although prior to 1960s the downstream oil and gas sector was initially market driven with the mechanism of demand and supply determining product price Funsho (2004). The distribution and marketing of petroleum product was virtually controlled by the multinational oil and gas companies Jean (2012). This was the situation before the government decided to harmonise petroleum products by way of uniform pricing in 1973 to encourage even distribution of products nationwide Christopher and Adepoju (2012). In furtherance to the uniform price policy and also tackle the cost differential problem associated with the delivery of products to every part of the country, the government establ ished the Petroleum Equalization Fund (PEF) Oluwole (2004). The participation of government in the management and ownership structure of the downstream sector culminated to a regulated regime Olumide (2011). The consequence of the policy shift by the government on the economy was characterized by acute product scarcity, hoarding, smuggling, adulteration; long queues, inappropriate pricing, under funding and monopolistic practices. This were the main features of the supply and distribution process of the downstream oil and gas industry Funsho (2004). The unhealthy development degenerated to poor performance of the nation refineries, which resulted in excessive dependence on imports Christopher and Adepoju (2012). Thus, the economic reforms of the government became imperative towards reviving the ailing downstream sector by way of deregulation Okafor(2004). The deregulation of the sector as implemented in 2003 implies removal of restrictions on the establishment of refineries, jetties and depots. It also involves granting free access to private sector participation in the importation of petroleum products and also allowing the demand and supply mechanism to determine price including also the government total removal of control on product prices Oluwole (2004). Furthermore, the objective is meant to achieve regular supply of petroleum products at reasonable price, maintaining self-sufficiency in refining, employment generation for Nigerians, growth in foreign investment and general economic growth. Onyishi, Emeh, and Ikechukwu (2012). Other major benefits are as indicated in figure 1 below: Figure : BENEFITS OF DEREGULATION OF DOWNSTREAM OIL AND GAS SECTOR Removal of subsidy burden Government refocus to segment regulator Competition on and a level play field to attract new entrant DEREGULATION Increased efficiency by service providers Eliminate sharp practices that exploit subsidy regime From the foregoing many years have passed after deregulation, yet the aforementioned problems still persist, refineries continue to operate below installed capacity Oladele (1997). Efficient transport system for product distribution is lacking while pipeline are still vandalized. The expected government responses by private sector investment in establishing new refineries after many years of issuance of licence is yet to be realized. This scenario is in contrast to the objective of deregulation as commenced in the USA in the 1970s which was to create competition, enhance industry efficiency and guarantee competitive prices DME (2007) ; Hicks (2004). Improving efficiency in the industry implies product availability, proper functioning of the distribution networks, availability of storage facilities and depots to avoid scarcity of products and to ensure regular supply of products to force down price. However with the lack of these facilities the intending benefit from deregulation of the downstream oil and gas sector by the Nigerian populace becomes defeated. The question now is why should government proceed with deregulation policy? Thus, this dissertation seeks to examine a strategic management perspective of the effects, challenges and prospects of the deregulation of the downstream oil and gas industry in Nigeria. The theoretical framework of this study dwells on three literature reviews: deregulation, strategic management and competitive forces. This three perspectives are utilized to assess the emerging effects, challenges and prospects of the deregulation exercise in the oil and gas industry. The study analyses the literatu re for this perspectives, competitive forces and innovation management in the context of deregulation. 1.2 PURPOSE OF THE STUDY The purpose of this study is to appraise the deregulation exercise that was carried out in the Nigerian downstream oil and gas industry. The specific aim of this study are as follows: To examine the implementation of deregulation policy in the downstream oil and gas industry in order to determine the effects, challenges and prospects. This study is also aimed to explore if deregulation has actually yielded the desired result in terms of the forces of demand and supply determining prices of product. This study further uses the Porters five model to establish if effective strategic management (innovative management and competitive forces) can achieve a sustained competitive advantage among industry competitors in the deregulated regime. 1.2 RELEVANCE OF THE STUDY This study is relevant in many ways; apart from the downstream sector importance in Nigeria economic stability other relevance includes the following: As already stated, this study would use a Porters five competitive forces to analyse the attractiveness of the industry. This will inform us of the impact of deregulation on new entrants, competitive rivalry, buyers bargaining powers, suppliers power, products prices, product supply and distribution. The study would conduct a survey to know the feelings of Nigerians on the effects, challenges and prospects of the deregulation of the downstream industry. The study would also contribute to existing literature on deregulation thereby providing insight of current developments in the downstream oil and gas industry in Nigeria. Furthermore, the study would also serve as an important tool for students, academia, institutions and individuals to consult for knowledge on deregulation of the downstream sector of the Nigerian oil and gas industry. 1.3 RESEARCH QUESTIONS In finding out the effects, challenges and prospects of the deregulation of downstream oil and gas industry in Nigeria, this study answers three questions: How can government improve the implementation of the deregulation of the downstream oil and gas industry to achieve the actual policy objective? In what way can government encourage the private sector to fully participate in the downstream oil and gas deregulation exercise? What informed the government deregulation of the downstream oil and gas industry and if it is the only solution in an economic environment such as Nigeria? 1.4 ORGANISATION OF THE STUDY This study contains six chapters. The first chapter is the introduction and background of the study, the purpose of the research, significance of the study, the objectives of the study, the research questions, this would guide the study. Chapter two would present the literature review on the subject matter. Chapter three gives the theoretical framework of the study. The methodology to be adopted in the study would be stated in chapter four. Chapter five focuses on the presentation of data, analysis of collected data, findings and discussion of results. The last chapter which is chapter six, would present the conclusion and appropriate recommendations. CHAPTER TWO 2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW Many existing literature have argued on different perspectives and motives for the government deregulation of the oil and gas sector in Nigeria yielding different opinions from two school of thought. The opposing and the supporting group respectively. Those supporting deregulation argue that deregulation of the downstream oil and gas industry would actualize government move to eradicate fuel scarcity and ensure constant fuel supply across the country Funsho (2004). Similarly, deregulation of the industry would create inflow of foreign investment while persistent smuggling of petroleum products and inefficiencies in the sector will be eliminated Oluwole (2004). They also posit that Nigeria has the lowest price of petroleum products in the world and with deregulation the international market equilibrium would allow government to channel funds to other sectors of the economy. Furthermore, they argued that it would break the monopoly enjoyed by the Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation (NNPC) Okafor (2004). Essentially, deregulation would lead to uninterrupted operation of the refineries, it would also guarantee steady supply by enabling stakeholders and independent marketers to participate in product importation and marketing Enemoh (2004). Their view is also that the regulated regime by way of subsidy is a way of government enriching few Nigerian petroleum products marketers Oluwole (2004). Findings from Abu (2012) indicates that Nigerians believes deregulation and privatization will usher in sustainable development and would be a blessing rather than a course. Odey (2011) recommends the complete deregulation of the downstream sector to reduce corruption, inaccurate record keeping, inefficiency, smuggling and insufficient product supply. Jean (2012) suggested that making deregulation work involves providing an enabling environment and framework for efficient production, supply and distribution. Braide (2003) recommends that the usual business as usual in the NNPC by way of product imp ortation and distribution is inexpedient because it represents a wrong step for government to continue with instead government should fully deregulate the downstream oil and gas sector. From the opposing group came the argument that the Nigeria petroleum industry must not be deregulated completely, instead government should maintain the status quo and restructure the sector to improve efficiency for the overall national interest. They opined that the root cause and clamour for deregulation is because of the massive corruption in the sector and therefore should be tackled rather than embarking on deregulation. They further argued that deregulation helps increase profit margin for the importers, interestingly this is the position of the labour union and the organized civil society. Furthermore, Amana and Amana (2011) asserts that the fair distribution of economic benefits derived from petroleum has proven elusive and therefore predicts same for deregulation. Ibanga (2011) argued that removal of subsidy may cause dislocation to the gas price because of high demand and inadequate supply. Bafor (2001) doubted government sustaining the gain of deregulation due to the undu e interference in NNPC affair resulting to near collapse and dismal performance which encouraged the clamour for the privatisation and deregulation. According to Kikeri and Nellis (2004) they argued that deregulation processes and institutions must be combined with appropriate competition policies and regulatory frameworks without which the gains of deregulation can be eroded by harsh impact on consumers and the overall economy affected due to inadequate product supply. Matthew and Fidelis (2003) opined that the merit of deregulation can only be enjoyed by Nigerians if only they could be genuine attention to eliminating corruption in the sector. Adagba, Ugwu and Eme (2012) posits that government is merely taxing the poor to subsidise the life of the rich. Similarly, Akpanuko and Ayandele (2012) argues that government is not transparent in its drive to transform the economy and suggested reduction in the cost of governance, rehabilitating the refineries as a measure to drive the economy. In global perspective, the theoretical argument behind the large scale deregulation reforms initiated in the late 1970s is two-fold. On one hand, deregulation reduces the rents that regulation creates for workers, incumbent producers, and service providers. This view has gained a widespread popularity among academics and policy makers ever since the works by Stigler (1971); Posner (1975) and Peltzman (1976) contributed to the understanding of the political economy of regulation. On the other hand, deregulation allows the newly created competition on product, labour and capital markets to determine the winner of rent transfers. Thus, by spurring productivity and efficiency gains Winston, (1993), economic deregulation ultimately contributes to the overall increase in economic growth. The additional growth is brought primarily through increased employment and real wages Blanchard Giavazzi (2003), which impacts both production and consumption and through increased investment Alesina, Ardagna, Nicoletti, Schiantarelli (2005), this affects the capital stock in the economy. However, a need for caution is required on the recent take on the efficiency gains from deregulation in the developing world. The key argument in this new area of literature is that deregulation reforms influence diverse economies differently, depending on their position on the technology level and on their quality of institutions. For example, Acemoglu, Aghion and Zilibotti (2006) claim that certain restrictions on competition may benefit the technologically backward countries, while Estache and Wren-Lewis (2009) finds that ideal regulatory policies in developed and in developing countries are different because of differences in the overall institutional quality in those countries. In addition, Aghion, Alesina and Trebbi (2007) use industry level data to demonstrate that within each economy, institutional reforms influence different industries differently, and more specifically, industries closer to the technology frontier would be affected more by deregulation and would innovate more than the backward industries in order to prevent entry. As a result, countries closer to the technology frontier would benefit more from deregulation. The alleged benefits of economic deregulation in many industries prompted a debate on the growth effects from specific types of reforms on petroleum product downstream deregulation. 2.1 THEORIES OF DEREGULATION Deregulation can be looked from the angle of different theories, we have the public interest theory which presume that deregulation would occur if the market deficiency which compelled regulation in the first place were to disappear. An illustration is a change in technology which could eliminate a natural monopoly. The public interest theory also predicts that deregulation would occur if discovered that a regulatory regime which had been perceived to be in the public interest was defective. It may turn out that, in the light of experience, the cost of the regulatory apparatus is or has become greater than the loss resulting from the market imperfection it was designed to correct Posner (1974). Thus, it may become obvious only with experience that entry restrictions is a relatively costly way to enforce standards. From Stigler Peltzman came the version of the special interest theory which suggests that a number of factors which may give rise to deregulation. First, a reduction in the cost consumers must incur in order to inform themselves regarding the effect of regulation on them. For example, price comparisons between regulated and non-regulated controls can assist consumers in estimating the effect of regulation on the prices they pay. Secondly, as product substitutes increases between regulated and non-regulated products, this would reduce profits and hence the urge to lobby for regulation induced price increases. Substitution may also occur between regulated and unregulated industries or between regulated and unregulated controls. Thirdly, a change in industry structure can reduce either the incentive or the ability to lobby for regulation. Also, an increase in the number of firms in an industry or a merging of their respective interests may increase the incentive to free ride and make it more costly to organize support for politicians promising regulatory benefits Stigler (1974). Noll and Owen (1983) argue that, over time, the beneficiaries of regulation will grow while groups that lose will contract. In view of the interest group structure, alternative for substitutes and information, McCormick et al. (1984) offer two reasons why the incentive to regulate is greater than the incentive to deregulate. The first is that the cost of seeking regulation may be as much as the present value of the anticipated wealth transfer involved, and if this cost is sunk it is not recoverable in the event of deregulation. The question is does Nigeria have a theory of deregulation? although the public and special interest theories of deregulation had slightly been criticized for the vagueness regarding transactions in policy frameworks and political markets. In the case of Nigeria the evidence on deregulation supports both the public and special interest theories. The two of them are in the same range, deregulation is used by government to effect wealth transfers through privatization. These transfers may benefit the highly concentrated special interest groups, such as petroleum product marketers and politicians. They may also benefit larger groups, like the deregulation of telecom industry. For the public interest group, government most times come up with reforms and policy frame work aimed at benefiting the masses, but often hijacked by the cabals who may want to exploit government programme to their own benefit. An example is the issue of oil subsidy which the original government intention was for p ublic interest, but was later hijacked by special interest groups or cabals. 2.2 COUNTRY EXPERIENCES ON DEREGULATION 2.2.1 ARGENTINA The Menem administration introduced deregulation in Argentina. The country underwent heavy economic deregulation, privatization and had a fixed exchange rate between (1989-1999). The resulting effects of Argentina deregulation exercise lead to the comparing of Enron with Argentina by Krugman (2001), asserting that they were both experiencing economic collapse due to excessive deregulation. However the claim by Krugman was termed as confusing correlation with causation, as neither the collapse was due to excessive deregulation Herbert (2002). He argued that if deregulation of the Argentine economy produced prosperity for years, how could it generate collapse within a few months? The answer is not deregulation but excessive loans. 2.2.2 AUSTRALIA Deregulation in Australia commenced with the Minimum Effective Regulation in 1986 following the announcement by the Labour Prime Minister Bob Hawke of a wide range of deregulatory policies. The introduction of the policy, which is now a familiar requirements for regulatory impact statements, took many years for governmental agencies to comply with. Although wider competition policy reforms had commenced, during the 1980s trade policy reform which substantially increased competition in the domestic economy Smith (2001). In this regard the level of assistance to manufacturing sector was reduced from 25 percent to 15 percent of the value of manufacturing output between 1981-82 and 1991-92. They was reductions in import barriers, which off course exposed many industries to the rigours of international competition, providing increased incentives to improve product quality, costs and innovation. 2.2.3 CANADA The deregulation of natural gas in Canada took place in the mid 1980s, with exception of Atlantic provinces, Vancouver Island and Medicine Hat, the whole of the country natural gas was deregulated. A price comparison service is operating in some of these jurisdictions, particularly Ontario, Alberta and BC. The other provinces are small markets and have not attracted suppliers. Customers have the choice of purchasing from a local distribution company (LDC) or a deregulated supplier. In most provinces the LDC is not allowed to offer a term contract, just a variable price based on the spot market. LDC prices are changed either monthly or quarterly. 2.2.4 UNITED KINGDOM The conservative government of Margaret Thatcher started a program of deregulation and privatization in 1979, where the conservative government criticised many public enterprises, including CEGB, for being too inflexible, bureaucratic and out of political control. As a remedy the government suggested deregulation and privatisation Foster (1993) ; Newbery and Green (1996). In response, the policy framework was enacted which included the express coach Transport Act 1980, British Telecom 1984, privatization of London Bus services 1984, local bus services Transport Acts 1985 and the railways 1993. The common feature of all the privatisations was the offering of the shares to the general public. In support of the policy since 1997 the Labour governments of Tony Blair and Gordon Brown developed a programme of better deregulation. This included a general programme for government departments to review, simplify or abolish their existing regulations, and introduced approach to new regulations . 2.2.5 NEW ZEALAND The New Zealand governments adopted policies of extensive deregulation from 1984 to 1995. Originally initiated by the Fourth Labour Government of New Zealand Dalziel (2010). The goal of the policy was liberalising the economy and had a comprehensive coverage and innovations. The major specific polices included: establishing an independent reserve bank; floating the exchange rate; public sector finance reform based on accrual accounting; performance contracts for senior civil servants; tax neutrality; subsidy-free agriculture; and industry neutral competition regulation. The introduction led to Economic growth in 1991. New Zealand was changed from a somewhat closed and centrally controlled economy to one of the most open economies in the OECD Evans, Grimes, Wilkinson (1996). 2.2.6 UNITED STATES Many industries in the United States became regulated by the federal government in the late 19th and early 20th century. Entry to some markets was restricted to stimulate and protect the initial investment of private companies into infrastructure to provide public services, such as water, electric and communications utilities. However in the 1970s among the problems that encouraged deregulation was the way in which the regulated industries often controlled the government regulatory agencies, using them to serve the industries interests. In the energy industry the Emergency Petroleum Act was a regulating law, consisting of a mix of regulations and deregulation, which passed in response to OPEC price hikes and domestic price controls which effected the 1973 oil crisis in the United States. After adoption of this federal legislation, numerous state legislation known as Natural Gas Choice programs have sprung up in several states which allow residential and small volume natural gas users to comparison purchase from natural gas suppliers, aside with traditional utility companies. 2.3 CONCEPT OF DEREGULATION Deregulation refers to a situation whereby they is a restrictive use of the states legal power to direct the conduct of private actors Stigler (1971). Deregulation programme is focused primarily on the withdrawal of economic interest of government apparatus. It is also the reduction of government regulation of business, consumers and market activity Economic glossary (2013). Similarly deregulation according to Webster dictionary is the act or process of removing state deregulations, it is the opposite of regulation which implies the process of government regulating certain activities. In the perspective of Kimberly (2013) deregulation is when the government seeks to allow more competition in an industry that allows near-monopolies. From the view of Ernest and Young (1988) deregulation and privatization are elements of economic reform programmes charge with the goal of improving the overall economy in a structured process. Essentially in an economic perspective deregulation implies freedom from government control Innocent and Charles (2011), while Akinwumi et al (2005) asserts that deregulation is the removal of government interference in running a system. By implication, the normal regulatory rules and enforcement in managing the operation of a system is replaced with market force of demand and supply to be a determinant of price Ajayi and Ekundayo (2008). In the opinion of Wolak (2005) he sees deregulation as the removal of control by government on natural monopolies in order to exercise market power. Where for example in US regulation generally held natural monopolies to a specified rate of return basis for pricing products Rothwell and Gomez (2003). Deregulation introduced free market principles and competition into these natural monopolies Hirsch (1999); Kahn (2004); Novarro and Shames (2003); Rassenti, Smith and Wilson (2002) and created the frame breaking changes. The deregulation of downstream oil and gas industry is the loosening of government control over the industry. It is a way of breaking the monopoly in NNPC in order to pave way for healthy competition. This implies the introduction of free market system, where the forces of demand and supply are allowed to determine the market price of products PPPRA (2004). This formula is in contrast to the regulated regime, where government acting on existing laws controls and determine retail and wholesale prices of petroleum products. A regulated regime is characterised by low level of competition and investment leading to distortions in product supply and distribution, scarcity resulting to long queues, hording, smuggling and other bottlenecks such as monopolistic practices, existence of subsidy and poor maintenance of infrastructural facilities Funsho (2004). The structural framework of deregulation involves the following phases: (1) Liberalisation (2) Privatization and commercialization. 2.3.1 LIBERALIZATION Liberalization refers to a relaxation of the government previous restrictions, usually in areas of social or economic policy, in most context the process or concept is often, but not always referred to as deregulation Sullivan, Arthur, Sheffrin and Steven (2002). It is also the involvement of many participants in the downstream petroleum industry PPPRA (2004). Liberalization involves removing monopoly, promoting high competitive culture in the industry, product availability, ensuring fair pricing for consumer, reviving and ensuring the efficiency of the refineries Oluwole (2004). Liberalization also ensures the removal of oil subsidy, which robs the poor to pay the rich PPPRA (2004). Liberalization is aimed to generate add

joseph conrad :: essays research papers

Joseph Conrad was born in Berdichev, in the Ukraine, in a region that had once been a part of Poland but was then under Russian rule. His father Apollo Korzeniowski was an aristocrat without lands, a poet and translator of English and French literature. The family estates had been sequestrated in 1839 following an anti-Russian rebellion. As a boy the young Joseph read Polish and French versions of English novels with his father. When Apollo Korzeniowski became embroiled in political activities, he was sent to exile with his family to Volgoda, northern Russia, in 1861. After being wounded in a duel or of a self-inflicted gunshot in the chest, Conrad continued a career at the seas for 16 years in the British merchant navy. He had been deeply in debt, but his uncle discharged his debts. This was a turning point in his life. Conrad rose through the ranks from common seaman to first mate, and by 1886 he obtained his master mariner's certificate, commanding his own ship, Otago. In the same year he was given British citizenship and he changed officially his name to Joseph Conrad. Witnessing the forces of the sea, Conrad developed a deterministic view of the world, which he expressed in a letter in 1897: "What makes mankind tragic is not that they are the victims of nature, it is that they are conscious of it. To be part of the animal kingdom under the conditions of this earth is very well - but soon, as you know of your slavery, the pain, the anger, and the strife. The tragedy begins." Conrad sailed to many parts of the world, including Australia, various ports of the Indian Ocean, Borneo, the Malay states, South America, and the South Pacific Island. In 1890 he sailed in Africa up the Congo River. The journey provided much material for his novel Heart of Darkness. However, the fabled East Indies particularly attracted Conrad and it became the setting of many of his stories. By 1894 Conrad's sea life was over. During the long journeys he had started to write and Conrad decided to devote himself entirely to literature. At the age of 36 Conrad settled down in England. In his famous preface to THE NIGGER OF THE 'NARCISSUS' (1897) Conrad crystallized his often quoted goal as a writer: "My task which I am trying to achieve is, by the power of the written word, to make you hear, to make you fell - it is, above all, to make you see.

Sir Francis Drake :: essays research papers

Sir Francis Drake Late in 1577, Francis Drake left England with five ships, ostensibly on a trading expedition to the Nile. On reaching Africa, the true destination was revealed to be the Pacific Ocean via the Strait of Magellan, to the dismay of some of the accompanying gentlemen and sailors. Still in the eastern Atlantic, a Portuguese merchant ship and its pilot - who was to stay with Drake for 15 months - was captured, and the fleet crossed the Atlantic, via the Cape Verde Islands, to a Brazilian landfall. Running down the Atlantic South American coast, storms, separations, dissension, and a fatal skirmish with natives marred the journey. Before leaving the Atlantic, Drake lightened the expedition by disposing of two unfit ships and one English gentleman, who was tried and executed for mutiny. After rallying his men and unifying his command with a remarkable speech, Drake renamed his flagship, previously the Pelican, the Golden Hind. In September of 1578, the fleet, now three ships, sailed through the deadly Strait of Magellan with speed and ease, only to emerge into terrific Pacific storms. For two months the ships were in mortal danger, unable to sail clear of the weather or to stay clear of the coast. The ships were scattered, and the smallest, the Marigold, went down with all hands. The Elizabeth found herself back in the strait and turned tail for England, where she arrived safely but in disgrace. Meanwhile, the Golden Hind had been blown far to the south, where Drake discovered - perhaps - that there was open water below the South American continent. The storms abated, and the Golden Hind was finally able to sail north along the Pacific South American coast, into the previously undisturbed private waters of King Philip of Spain. The first stop, for food and water, was at the (now) Chilean Island of Mocha, where the rebellious residents laid a nearly disastrous ambush, having mistaken the English for their Spanish oppressors. After this bad beginning in the Pacific the tide turned, and for the next five and a half months Drake raided Spanish settlements at will, among them Valpariso, Lima and Arica, and easily took Spanish ships, including the rich treasure ship "Cacafuego," leaving panic, chaos, and a confused pursuit in his wake. During this time, he captured and released a number of Europeans, whose subsequent testimony survives. The plundering was remarkable for its restraint; neither the Spanish nor the natives were intentionally harmed, there was very little violence, and there were very few casualties.

Comparing Women in House on Mango Street and Woman Hollering Creek Essa

Ethnic Identity of Women in House on Mango Street and Woman Hollering Creek  Ã‚      The novels The House on Mango Street (Cisneros 1984) and Woman Hollering Creek (Cisneros 1992) relate the new American through the eyes of Cisneros. The women in both novels are caught in the middle of their ethnic identity and their American identity, thus creating the "New American." Cisneros moved between Mexico and the United States often while growing up, thus making her feel "homeless and displaced" (Jones and Jorgenson 109). The House on Mango Street characterizes a community of girls and women restricted in their movements within the barrio. The roles of these girls and women are translated through the eyes of a child. When women in the barrio are confined, they can become a victim of abuse due to male domination. Women are confined to interior spaces in addition to their domestic roles as daughters, wives, and mothers. They live inside the barrio, but desire to escape and live outside the barrio. In addition, women can escape their restricted lifestyle by receiving an education. Esperanza, the child narrator is the only one who escapes this ethnic lifestyle (Mullen 6). In The House on Mango Street, the vignette "My Name," Esperanza was named after her great grandmother, desires a life outside her interior walls of the barrio. Esperanza’s name means hope in English, while it means sadness and waiting in Spanish. Her great grandmother was wild as a young lady, but was tamed by her Mexican husband. Cisneros states, "She looked out her window her whole life, the way so many women sit with sadness on an elbow . . . I have inherited her name, but I don’t want to inherit her place by the window" (11). Esperanza is proud of her namesake... ...il 1991. 22 Oct. 2000 False&origSearch=true&u=CA&u+CLC&u=DLB>. Mullen, Harryette. "A Silence Between Us Like a Language: The Untranslatability of Experience in Sandra Cisneros’s Woman Hollering Creek." Gale Literary Databases Summer, 1996. 22 Oct. 2000 Galenet.com/servlet/GLD/hit?c=1&secondary=false&orig SearchTrue&u=CA&u+CLC&u=DLB>. Olivares, Julian. "Sandra Cisneros’ The House on Mango Street and the Poetics of Space." Gale Literary Databases 1998. 14 Oct. 2000 <> Servlet/GLD/hits?c=6&secondary=false&origSearch=true& u=CA&†¦=>. "Sandra Cisneros." Contemporary Artists. Vol. 64. 1998. Wyatt, Jean. "On Not Being La Malinche: Border Negotiations of Gender in Sandra Cisneros’s Never Marry A Mexican and Woman Hollering Creek." Gale Literary Databases Fall 1995. 22 Oct. 2000 .    Comparing Women in House on Mango Street and Woman Hollering Creek Essa Ethnic Identity of Women in House on Mango Street and Woman Hollering Creek  Ã‚      The novels The House on Mango Street (Cisneros 1984) and Woman Hollering Creek (Cisneros 1992) relate the new American through the eyes of Cisneros. The women in both novels are caught in the middle of their ethnic identity and their American identity, thus creating the "New American." Cisneros moved between Mexico and the United States often while growing up, thus making her feel "homeless and displaced" (Jones and Jorgenson 109). The House on Mango Street characterizes a community of girls and women restricted in their movements within the barrio. The roles of these girls and women are translated through the eyes of a child. When women in the barrio are confined, they can become a victim of abuse due to male domination. Women are confined to interior spaces in addition to their domestic roles as daughters, wives, and mothers. They live inside the barrio, but desire to escape and live outside the barrio. In addition, women can escape their restricted lifestyle by receiving an education. Esperanza, the child narrator is the only one who escapes this ethnic lifestyle (Mullen 6). In The House on Mango Street, the vignette "My Name," Esperanza was named after her great grandmother, desires a life outside her interior walls of the barrio. Esperanza’s name means hope in English, while it means sadness and waiting in Spanish. Her great grandmother was wild as a young lady, but was tamed by her Mexican husband. Cisneros states, "She looked out her window her whole life, the way so many women sit with sadness on an elbow . . . I have inherited her name, but I don’t want to inherit her place by the window" (11). Esperanza is proud of her namesake... ...il 1991. 22 Oct. 2000 False&origSearch=true&u=CA&u+CLC&u=DLB>. Mullen, Harryette. "A Silence Between Us Like a Language: The Untranslatability of Experience in Sandra Cisneros’s Woman Hollering Creek." Gale Literary Databases Summer, 1996. 22 Oct. 2000 Galenet.com/servlet/GLD/hit?c=1&secondary=false&orig SearchTrue&u=CA&u+CLC&u=DLB>. Olivares, Julian. "Sandra Cisneros’ The House on Mango Street and the Poetics of Space." Gale Literary Databases 1998. 14 Oct. 2000 <> Servlet/GLD/hits?c=6&secondary=false&origSearch=true& u=CA&†¦=>. "Sandra Cisneros." Contemporary Artists. Vol. 64. 1998. Wyatt, Jean. "On Not Being La Malinche: Border Negotiations of Gender in Sandra Cisneros’s Never Marry A Mexican and Woman Hollering Creek." Gale Literary Databases Fall 1995. 22 Oct. 2000 .   

Cell Energetics Study Guide

Cellular Energetics Study Guide 1. Overall Metabolism a. Oxidation – a molecule LOSSES hydrogen, energy is RELEASED b. Reduction – a molecule GAINS hydrogen, energy is GAINED and stored (the more reduced a molecule is, the more energy is stored in its COVALENT BONDS) *** Always occur in a coupled pair (RED-OX)*** c. Electron Carriers i. Oxidizing Agents: are REDUCED to OXIDIZE another molecule 1. NAD+ – oxidizes glucose to 2 pyruvate in glycolysis, oxidizes pyruvate to CO2 in the Kreb’s cycle (gets reduced to NADH) 2.NADP+- oxidizes H2O to O2 during the Light Dependent Reactions of photosynthesis, final electron acceptor from chlorophyll (PSI) (gets reduced to NADPH) 3. FAD+- oxidizes NADH to NAD during glycolysis and transported to the mitochondrion (gets reduced to FADHs) ii. Reducing Agents: are OXIDIZED to REDUCE another molecule 4. NADH- reduces 2 pyruvate to 2 lactic acid in fermentation, reduces O2 during the respiratory chain (gets oxidized to NAD) *CANNOT pass through the mitochondrion* 5.NADPH- reduces CO2 to form carbohydrates (Calvin Cycle) in the Dark Reactions of photosynthesis (gets oxidized to NADP) 6. FADH2- reduces O2 during the respiratory chain (gets oxidized to FAD) *CAN pass through the mitochondrion* 2. Phosphorylation: Formation of ATP (ADP + P ATP) d. Substrate-level: direct enzymatic transfer of a phosphate to ADP * Only occurs during glycolysis when O2 is not needed to function * Only a small amount of ATP is produced this way e.Electron Transfer /Chemiosmosis: the movement of protons (H+) down a concentration gradient through ATP synthase that can HARNESS THE ENERGY OF THAT GRADIENT (proton-motive force) to bond ADP and phosphate to create ATP through oxidative phosphorylation * Occurs during the Light Dependent Reaction * 90% of ATP is produced this way 3. Photosynthesis f. Balanced Net Reaction: light 6CO2 + 6H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2 g. Light Dependent Reaction – occurs on the thylakoid lumen iii. Photol ysis – oxidation of H2O to release electrons used to return PSII to ground state iv.NADP Reduction – NADP receives an electron from PSI as it passes through electron transfer chains, reducing it to NADPH+. Electrons are passed from excited atoms that gain energy from a photon. v. ATP Synthesis – ATP is produced by chemiosmotic phosphorylation. Proton gradient (within the thylakoid interior) is made as electrons from photosystems are passed through proton pumps. h. Light Independent Reaction – occurs in the stroma vi. CO2 fixation: RuBP + CO2 2 PGA (a form that can be easily reduced).The reaction is catalyzed by RUBISCO. 7. In the presence of oxygen, RuBP + O2 Bad Sugar; process is called photorespiration. Plants overcome this by keeping a HIGH concentration of CO2. Land plants must compromise opening the stroma to maintain high CO2 concentration with loss of H2O. There are 2 additional adaptations that evolved: a. C-4 Pathway – formation of Oxaloac etate (C-4) from CO2 + PEP (C-3). Occurs in outer cells (mesophyll). Calvin cycle occurs in inner cells only (closer to supply of CO2, bundle sheath). b.CAM Pathway – like C-4, but fixation only occurs at night, when water loss is minimal. Found in desert plants, like cacti. vii. Calvin Cycle 8. PGA is reduced to PGAL using the products of the light dependent reaction, NADPH (oxidized) and ATP (provides energy) 9. One-sixth of the PGAL produced is used to create glucose for the cell to grow and repair. 10. Five-sixths of the PGAL is used to produce RuBP, completing the cycle (energy requiring). 4. Cellular Respiration i. Balanced Net Reaction: C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O j.Glycolysis – occurs in the cytoplasm. All organisms carry out this process. viii. Glucose is double phosphorylated by 2 ATP and broken up into two three carbon phosphorylated molecules called PGAL ix. Each PGAL is phosphorylated by a free phosphate and ADP to form Biphosphoglycerate (BPG) while NAD is reduced to NADH. x. Each BPG aides in Substrate Level Phosphorylation of two ADP’s to form 2 ATP’s. Water is released. The remaining 3 carbon molecule is pyruvate. k. Fermentation – when pyruvate is used to oxidize NADH to replenish NAD+.Only produces 2 ATP per glucose through glycolysis. Some organisms (anaerobic) do it exclusively. Occurs regularly in all cells, but products can build up when NAD supplied through reduction of pyruvate is not available. 2 Forms: xi. Alcoholic – produces ethanol and CO2 from reduction of pyruvate. xii. Lactic acid – produces lactic acid from the reduction of pyruvate. l. Kreb’s Cycle – NAD required to begin. Takes place in the matrix of the mitochondria or in the cytoplasm of prokaryotes. xiii. Pyruvate is oxidized to Acetyl CoA, Reduced by _______, Releases 1 NADH. iv. Acetyl CoA is added to Oxaloacetate to form Citrate. xv. Citrate is broken down releasing 2 H2O and is oxidized 4x: by NAD+ thrice an d once by FAD+. One Substrate Level phosphorylation occurs producing ATP. Oxaloacetate is the product and continues the cycle by being added to the next available acetyl CoA. m. Electron Transport and Oxidative Phosphorylation – takes place on the cristae (inner mitochondrial) membrane. xvi. NADH and FADH2, products of Glycolysis and Krebs are oxidized by Q (molecule embedded in the membrane).Electrons are passed to cytochrome and protons are pumped into the proton pumps. xvii. The protons diffuse back through ATP synthase in a process called chemiosmosis. The energy harnessed allows an oxidative phosphorylation of ATP. (3 for each NADH, 2 for each FADH2) xviii. Free protons in the matrix and the electrons accepted by E. T. C are passed to O2, which is reduced to water. Stomata Allows gas exchange; since a lot of water can be lost, plants only open stomata for photosynthesis in daylight; at night they close to reduce loss of water. **CAM plants keep their stomates closed duri ng day and open at night*** Mesophyll C-3 Plants: Calvin Cycle during day C-4 Plants: CO2 combines with 3 carbon molecule PEP to form C-4 acid CAM Plants: stores CO2 in organic compounds that are synthesized at night Bundle sheath C-4 Plants: Calvin Cycle during day CAM Plants: Calvin Cycle during day Thylakoid lumen Light dependent reactions Stroma Calvin Cycle/Light independent reactions Inner membrane E. T. C. Cytoplasm Glycolysis & Fermentaion Matrix Kreb’s Cycle Diagrams (know following structures and what takes place there)